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Jtmertcan Jhtfiquarian ^octcfij 


Asia and America 

AN HISTORICAL DISQUISITION CONCERNING 
THE IDEAS WHICH FORMER GEOGRAPHERS 
HAD ABOUT THE GEOGRAPHICAL 
RELATION AND CONNECTION OF 
THE OLD AND NEW WORLD 


BY 

JOHANN GEORG KOHL 


Reprinted from the Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 
for October, 1911. 


WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY 
1911 


M - 3 & 


i 




The Davis Press 
Worcester, Mass. 


IN EXCHJ.itiM 


JUL 15 1914 




t 


ASIA AND AMERICA. 

An historical disquisition concerning the ideas 

WHICH FORMER GEOGRAPHERS HAD ABOUT 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL RELATION AND 
CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND 

New World. 

BY JOHANN GEORG KOHL . 1 


There are only two great first-class islands on our 
globe: Asia (with her appendages Africa and Europe) 
and America. 

Whether these two large parts of our terrestial dry¬ 
land, the so-called Old and New World, were connected 
with each other, and in what degree and manner they 
were connected, or if they were perfectly separated by 
water, has been since the time of Columbus a matter 
which has been investigated by numerous navigators, 
explorers and geographers, and has been answered at 
different times very differently. 

The history of the various speculations and hypothe¬ 
ses on this geographical point, one of the most interest¬ 
ing of its kind which the surface of our earth offers, goes 

1 Dr. Johann Georg Kohl, one of the most learned cartographers of 
his day, came to this country from Germany in 1854, bringing with 
him a large collection of transcripts of early American maps, both man¬ 
uscript and printed, and a greater knowledge of early American geography 
than was possessed by any scholar of his time. With the aid of a govern¬ 
ment appropriation of $6,000, obtained in 1856, he prepared an elaborate 
catalogue of American maps, the chief feature of which was a series of 
finely executed hand-copies of the rare originals. After the financial 
panic of 1857, Dr. Kohl failed to obtain a further appropriation and 
returned to Germany. He later became the librarian of the city library 
of Bremen, where he pursued his favorite studies in geography and where 
he died, October 28, 1878. His collection of maps long remained in the 
custody of the State Department, but was transferred to the Library 
of Congress in 1903. A full description of the collection was compiled 




4 


through the space of more than three centuries and it is 
not long since that we have found a perfectly satisfac¬ 
tory answer and that all doubts on it are removed. A 
thorough history of these speculations and of all the 
shapes and forms which they assumed, together with 
all the reports of discoverers and travellers who brought 
this question step by step nearer to its ultimate solution, 
would involve a great part of the whole history of the 
discovery of America. 

It is not my intention to attempt such a complete 
history. I will only try to give here a series of reduced 
copies of the original maps, on which geographers and 
explorers have laid down their hypothetical views or act¬ 
ual experience about this question, and to illustrate these 
maps by historical notes. I believe that in this manner 
and by this new method the question may be laid before 
the reader and may be conveyed to his mind and eye in 
the most striking, compendious and instructive manner. 

1. Old Maps before the Time of Columbus. 

If we at first inspect the old maps of the world which 
were made before the time of Columbus, we find that 

by Justin Winsor in 1886 and published as No. 19 of the Bibliographical 
Contributions of the library of Harvard University. This catalogue 
was reprinted, with the addition of useful indexes, by the Library of 
Congress in 1904. 

The monograph herewith printed was undoubtedly written by Dr. 
Kohl during his stay in America, and was deposited with this Society 
by Prof. Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution. It aroused 
much interest among such scholarly members of the Society as Charles 
Deane, Samuel F. Haven and Justin Winsor and the hope was frequently 
espressed that the manuscript might be printed by the Society with fac¬ 
similes of the maps included. By some it might be considered that, the 
publication of the treatise at this late day is inadvisable because more 
recent discoveries along cartographical lines have rendered the memoir 
less useful. But the continual inquiries received regarding the manu¬ 
script and the fact that it contains certain maps reproduced in no other 
way except through Dr. Kohl’s drawings, seem to justify its present 
printing. It has not been deemed necessary to double the size of the 
paper with explanatory notes, and for more or less elaborate treatises 
on the subject of the cartographical history of the Pacific coast, the reader 
is referred to Winsor’s “Narrative and Critical History of America,” 
vol. 2, p. 431, and to H. H. Bancroft’s “Northwest Coast,” vol. 1. No 
alteration of Dr. Kohl’s manuscript has been made other than to correct 
the spelling and punctuation, and occasionally to adapt his phraseology 
to the English idiom. 



5 


they all represent the mass of habitable dry-land which 
they pretend to know, as an island. On nearly all of 
them, whether made by Greeks, Italians, Arabians or 
Persians, a great water, the Ocean, surrounds the whole 
old Continent Europe, Africa and Asia everywhere. 
The dry-land is nowhere without end, nowhere connected 
with boundless unknown regions. It is everywhere 
confined, and only the water is without limits. 



We find the same idea again in the cosmographical 
traditions of the Indians, who in comparing it to a lotus- 
flower with leaves swimming on the water, make the 
dry-land to be an island. This is a very curious and 
remarkable fact, and we may well question if the old 
nations could arrive at such a uniform and true view only 
by chance or mere speculation, or if they adopted it 
from actual experience. Perhaps the whole body of 
the Asiatic population was pervaded by old traditions 
and reports, which were handed down from one nation 







6 


to the other, from the inhabitants of the northern shore 
to those of the central and the southern parts, and which 
flowed from the inhabitants of the southern coasts back 
to those of the north, so that by the flux and reflux of 
these reports, about the water in every direction, a 
conviction of the insularity of the old world and of the 
existence of an everywhere circulating ocean was created 
throughout the whole body of the wise men of all the 
nations. 

It appears that in a like manner among the old popu¬ 
lation of the second great island, America, a similar 
conviction to a certain degree has existed, with respect 
to their part of the world. Also the old cosmography 
of many Indian tribes of America, if not of all, represents 
the inhabited world (America) as engendered from the 
water and as existing in the midst of the water. Mena- 
boshu or some other mythic creator threw the inspired 
sands upon the water and prepared from them the earth, 
which grew out under his fingers with its peninsulas 
and headlands over the surface of the water. 

Our first explorers and pioneers did not come, either 
in South or in North America, to any part so distant 
and so central, where they did not hear the people speak 
of great salt-waters in all directions, and where they did 
not find oceanic shells or some other salt-water produc¬ 
tion, which might be considered as a proof that mutual 
intercourse and commerce had brought with these pro¬ 
ductions also the report of an all circulating ocean. 
Even the Chippeways and. Sioux, who live at the head¬ 
waters of the Mississippi in a nearly equal distance from 
the Atlantic and Pacific in the east and west, and from 
the Arctic and Mexican Sea in the north, and south, 
think that the sun rises from a great water and sinks also 
down in the ocean; they designate America as surrounded 
by water, and speak of it in their mythical traditions 
as an island. 

From this it seems that a certain conviction of the 
insularity of Asia as well as of America, and of a bound¬ 
less ocean, has existed among the traditions of the human 


7 


race since the most ancient times. But this old vener¬ 
able traditionary view can scarcely be called a geographi¬ 
cal conviction. It was too vague, and the authorities 
upon which it rested could not be produced. And 
because the population, the life and soul of the two great 
parts of the world, did not come in contact with each 
other, and existed isolated from each other, that view 
helped in no way to throw light upon the relative position 
of those two worlds, islands to each other, upon their 
true configuration, and upon the exact circumstances of 
the manner and whereabouts of their approach. The 
more exact geographical history of this question could 
not begin before the European navigation and civiliza¬ 
tion commenced to throw its chain round the whole 
globe. 

2. Time of Behaim. 

That the world was a globe had been thought and 
proved already by the ancient Greek philosophers. In 
the middle ages many doubted this theory again. Some 
believed that the world had the figure of a high mountain. 
Others made it to be a flat square or gave to it an oval 
shape. But many enlightened mathematicians—for 
instance those distinguished amongst the Arabs— 
adhered to the old true theory of the Greeks. The 
Arabians had executed even some good measurements 
of a degree and had tried to calculate the size and extent 
of the terrestrial globe, and had arrived at a result which 
was not very far from truth. 

Towards the time where the great exploring activity 
of the Portuguese and Spaniards developed itself, it 
was by the well instructed cosmographers pretty gener¬ 
ally admitted, that the world was a globe of not very 
great dimensions, and that therefore Asia must bend 
round this globe and must with its eastern end approach 
again somewhere to the western coasts of Europe and 
Africa. The question was only how far Asia stretched 
eastward and how long the distance was between it and 
Europe across the unknown waters. 


8 


The great authority and oracle on this point was the 
most celebrated traveller of the fourteenth century, 
Marco Polo, who had been to China and to coasts of the 
Eastern Ocean. He had informed the world that in 
this Ocean east of Asia was situated a large rich island, 
called Zipangu (our Japan) and besides this many hun¬ 
dred smaller islands. Likewise on the side of Europe 
the navigators and discoverers of the Canary Islands 
and the Azores had created a belief, that there might 
be still more islands towards the West, amongst which 
was named a certain island of the Holy Brandan and 
another larger island, which was called Antilia. 

But of all these islands, with which from both sides 
the void space between Eastern Asia and Western 
Europe was filled, none was considered to be more worth 
exploring than that of Zipangu, described by Marco Polo 
as the residence of an Emperor, and rich in gold, silver 
and many other precious products. 

This geography was laid down on many maps of the 
time immediately before Columbus. Columbus him¬ 
self, his friend the Italian astronomer Toscanelli, the 
famous German cosmographer and traveller Behaim, 
constructed such maps, on which Africa was depicted 
after the latest Portuguese explorations, East India 
after the old map which was made one thousand years 
ago for Ptolemy, and the coast of Eastern Asia with Jap¬ 
an and his many hundred islands after the reports of 
Marco Polo. Asia was so far stretched out to the east, 
that its most eastern capes advanced towards Africa and 
Europe to about the distance of 100 degrees of longitude ; 
and Zipangu, or Japan, remained to the west of Europe 
only for about a quarter of the whole circumference of 
the globe. The western islands of the Azores, Canaries, 
Antilia, St. Brandan formed as it were chains or bridges, 
conducting to Japan. 

From all these general maps of the world, which rep¬ 
resent the ideas of that time, not a single one has been 
preserved to us, except that which Martin Behaim laid 
down on his celebrated Globe in Nuremberg in the year 


1492, and of which we present here to the reader the 
principal features in a reduced copy. 

Similar maps, like this, Columbus had on board his 
vessel, when he sailed over the Ocean towards the west. 
His voyage was called an expedition to Zipangu (Japan) 
and China. Columbus called it so himself and he 
thought that he had found some of those islands, which 
we see on our map to the south and east of Japan. He 



Map No. 2 


thought that he was in the midst of the Asiatic islands 
of the Indian Archipelago. And when on his third 
and fourth voyage he reached the coast of the continent 
of South and Central America he thought himself to be 
on the back side (or the eastern coast) of that long large 
country or peninsula, which on our map is called “India” 
and stretches out from China far towards the south. 
He looked for a passage or channel through this penin¬ 
sula to arrive to the Sinus Magnus (the Chinese Sea) 
and to the Ganges. Columbus died with the conviction 







10 


that he had been among the islands of the Indian Archi¬ 
pelago south of Japan and on the eastern coast of Asia. 

3. Soon after Columbus. 

When Columbus and his contemporaries had traced 
a great part of the northern and eastern coasts of South 
America, and when the small distances of these new coun¬ 
tries from Europe and Africa became better known, sub¬ 
sequent cartographers could not believe that the whole 
continent of Asia reached so far round the world without 
interruption. By measuring the distances of Asia from 
the Mediterranean and Egypt and other known longi¬ 
tudes of the west, as given by Ptolemy, Marco Polo, 
etc., they arrived at the conviction that Columbus and 
his new islands must be something separate from Asia, 
and that they must lie still a good way in advance from 
Asia, particularly that great southern island, called 
“ Terra Sanctse Crucis” (the Country of the Holy Cross) 
that is to say our South America. The magnitude of 
this country, to which the first great exploring expedi¬ 
tions were directed, was first well understood, and was 
therefore also first as it were detached and separated 
from Asia, and first called a New World (NovusMundus). 

North America, to which besides the Cortereals and 
Cabots and Ponce de Leon not many others at once did 
sail, became only known in detached pieces. And these 
detached pieces were either believed to be separate is¬ 
lands or peninsulas of the north of Asia, which was pro¬ 
longed towards the west much more than southern Asia. 
The generality of the maps, which were made and pub¬ 
lished soon after Columbus therefore show us the ocean 
between eastern Asia and western Europe filled with a 
number of large and small islands. Some of them are 
the old islands, mentioned by Marco Polo (Zipangu, 
etc.), others are the new ones added by Columbus and 
his . companions, “Isabella” (Cuba), “Spagnuola” 
(Haiti), “Terra de Cuba” (North America), “Terra 
Sanctse Crucis” (South America), etc. This latter is 
always by far the most extensive of all. 


11 


I produce here reduced copies of three of this class of 
maps. 

The first (No. 3) is a copy of a very famous map made 
by the German geographer, Ruysch, and published in 
the year 1508 in the Roman edition of Ptolemaeus. 
The principal features of this map are the following. 
South America (Terra Sanctae Crucis) appears on it 
as a detached piece of country, of which the southern and 



western coasts are said to be unknown. Spagnola 
(Hayti) is only 10 degrees to the east from that place, 
where Martin Behaim on his map of 1492 had put down 
his Japan, and the author of the map requests the reader 
not to be astonished at not finding on the map a Japan 
at all, because this Spagnola of the Spaniards was, so he 
says, this very same Japan of Marco Polo itself. Cuba 
appears to the west of Spagnola as the beginning of a 
large piece of country, of which the west and north is 
said to be unknown. The breadth of the ocean between 















12 


America and Asia (the Pacific) is still very small, in 
the south about 50 degrees of longitude and in the north 
not even twenty. The more Arctic countries “ Terra 
Nova” (Newfoundland) and “Gruenlant” (Greenland) 
are at last perfectly melted together with Asia and ap¬ 
pear as north-eastern peninsulas of the Old World. 



The second little picture (No. 4) is a reduced copy of 
a map contained on the well-known globes of Joh. 
Schoner of the year 1520. South America appears 
upon it as a large island, which ends in about 50° S. L. 
with a pointed peninsula. The island of North America 
is somewhat larger than on the Ruysch map. But the 
ways and navigation round it to Japan and China are 








13 


still open on all sides. Zipangu is situated only a few 
degrees of longitude to the west of it. The Pacific 
between North America and Eastern Asia has a breadth 
of 30 degrees, or about 400 leagues. The regions of 



Labrador and Canada, the Land of Cortereal (Terra 
Corterealis), form a large round island and the North 
Pole is again surrounded by an insular country. 

No. 5 is a copy of a map made in the year 1528 by a 
Venetian geographer, Pietro Coppo. It has upon the 





14 


whole the same features as the preceding and combines 
in a similar manner the geography of Ptolemy for the 
Indian Ocean, that of Marco Polo for eastern Asia, and 
what we might call the geography of Columbus for 
the new countries. The whole of America is dissolved 
in islands, of which the largest is South America, called 
“Mundo Nuovo” (the New World). That piece of 
country, which represents the island of Cuba and North 
America, is called “Cuba.” The large island, which 
Coppo names “Isola verde” (green island) is probably 
the “Cortereals Land” of Schoner’s map. About 60 
degrees to the west of this group of American islands 
appears the coast of eastern Asia and Japan, surrounded 
by its archipelago of numerous islands as described by 
Marco Polo. 

4. Maps of South America after Magellan, 
Cortes and Pizarro. 

The idea that South America was a great peninsula 
of Asia, similar to that long peninsula appendix which 
could be seen stretching to the south on all the ancient 
maps after Ptolemy, was first given up, particularly after 
the conquests and voyages of Magellan and Pizarro 
and their contemporaries, that is to say after 1533. By 
them the whole circumnavigation of South America 
was completed, and Magellan showed by what a broad 
ocean South America was divided from Asia. The same 
thing at the same time was proved by the Portuguese 
conquerors, who pushed their explorations to China 
and the Molucca-islands, and by setting the geograph¬ 
ical longitude of these countries, showed how far these 
regions remained back to the west. 

There are still, it is true, even after 1530 to be found 
some maps of South America on which some Asiatic 
reminiscences may be discovered. I could for instance 
produce some upon which we find the famous East India 
trading emporium Cattigara, of which Ptolemy speaks 
and which he calls a great trading station of the Chinese. 
Ptolemy had put down this “Cattigara” on the west 


15 


coast of his large southeastern peninsula of India. The 
modern mapmakers, who believed that Columbus had 
discovered this peninsula on the east side and that it 
was the same with his country of “Paria, ” put there¬ 
fore that Chinese city on the coast of Chile or Peru. 
But these were only exceptions or a few remains of the 
old erroneous views. And upon the whole, there was 
now no more doubt that South America formed a widely 
separated and isolated world for itself. It was generally 
called “Mondo Nuovo” or “Western India” or also 
“America,” names which were exclusively given to it 
and seldom applied also to North America. 

After 1530 we may therefore in the disquisition which 
occupies us here, give up South America and its maps 
altogether and turn our attention exclusively to North 
America, of which it remained for a much longer space 
of time doubtful if it formed a part of Asia or not. 

5. Maps of North America soon after Cortes. 

Cortes and his companions entered Mexico with ideas 
more or less similar to those with which Columbus and 
his contemporaries had entered the archipelago of the 
Antilles, that is to say, with the expectation of finding 
Asiatic kingdoms and nations. When Cortes set out 
for his discoveries on the Pacific he hoped soon to reach 
Japan, which he thought to be near. When his succes¬ 
sors arrived on the shores of Upper California, or what 
they called Quivira, they reported to have seen richly 
laden Chinese vessels. 

Many geographers after Cortes accordingly painted 
North America, of which only the eastern coast had 
become known, as connected on a broad basis with North¬ 
ern Asia. They represented on their maps Mexico and 
other American places, as Asiatic cities, and adorned 
them with mosques, minarets, temples and cupolas. 
They gave to the Rio Colorado its heads and sources 
in northern Asia. They laid down the famous province 
“Mangi” of China as bordering on Mexico. When they 
heard of the wild buffaloes of the western prairies, they 


16 


thought them the herds of the Nomadic tribes of Asia, 
and put down on their maps in the western regions, which 
they called Cibola, inscriptions like the following: 
“Here the people live like the Tartars and raise large 
droves of cattle.” 

Nay some seem to have made advance 2 China and the 
Asiatic elements, with which their North American maps 
for saying so were impregnated^ far as the Mississippi. 



In the British Museum is preserved a Spanish map of 
the year 1560, on which the portrait of a true Chinese 
with a blue caftan, a red painted bonnet and yellow 
silken stockings is posted in the centre of the Mississippi 
valley, and near him an elephant grazing. 

The maps of the middle of the 16th century, which 
have adopted this view of a connection between Asia 
and America on a broad scale, are very numerous. We 


* The word "advance” should apparently follow "impregnated” lEd.]. 






17 


find them among the French maps as well as among 
the Italian, German and English. They are scattered in 
the editions of Ptolemaeus, in Grynaeus and other books. 

For the sake of illustration I have chosen among them 
and reproduced in small copies three of this class. 

No. 6 is the oldest among them. It is probably of 
the year 1530, that is to say soon after Cortes’ conquest 
of Mexico. It is contained in an old manuscript pre- 



Map No. 7 


served in the British Museum. It may illustrate in 
a certain manner the ideas and expectations which 
Cortes had, when he set out from the western coasts 
of Mexico for the discovery and conquest of California. 

The name of the Chinese province, Mangi, is near to 
Temixtitian (Mexico) and the countries towards the 
west of the Mexican Gulf are called “India Superior” 
(Upper India), China and Thibet. The rest of eastern 
Asia is not far distant and Gilolo, Java and the Moluccas 





18 


are a few degrees distant from the Mexican coast, which 
is brought down as far south as the equator. 

No. 7 is of a little later date and though somewhat 
improved it shows features upon the whole similar to 
those of No. 6. It is from a map of the world, called 
“Carta Marina Nuova” (A new marine chart), and 
contained in the edition of Ptolemy of the Italian Rus- 
celli. Also on this map the union between North 



Map No. 8 


America and Asia is on such a broad scale that both may 
be called one. The names Mangi, India Superior and 
China are placed at a distance from Mexico, which 
is somewhat greater than on the former map, but they 
are still near. The North Pacific is very narrow and 
has its northern end a little beyond the Tropic of Can¬ 
cer while on No. 6 it was already closed south of this 
circle. Gilolo and the Maluccos are at no great dis¬ 
tance from the coast of Mexico, though this has received 
a truer latitude. 




19 


Ruscelli had moreover the idea that North America 
also in the east was connected through Greenland and 
Scandinavia by a continental bridge or isthmus with 
Europe. And his map, which is in this respect unique 
in the history of chartography, shows the whole dry-land 
of the globe in one unbroken continental piece. 

No. 8 is taken from a general map of America by the 
well-known Italian geographer Paulo de Furlani, who 
made it in the year 1560. Though on this map the 
northern Pacific is extended to the north as high as 
nearly 40° N. L., yet the union between North America 
and Asia is still on a very broad basis. Cimpaga (Japan) 
is at a distance of about 20 degrees longitude from 
California. “Quisai,” the famous port of China, Tebet 
and other Asiatic names are still very near. The rivers 
of the Californian Gulf, the mouth of which had been 
discovered by the Spaniards twenty years before, has its 
sources and headwaters in the interior of Asia and flows 
round the whole northern Pacific. 

6. Maps of the Middle and End of the 16th 
Century with the Strait of Anian. 

Though the views on the geographical point in ques¬ 
tion were very common in the period after Cortes, still 
they were not generally adopted. There were always 
many navigators, geographers and mapmakers, who 
believed in the existence of open water or a strait between 
America and Asia. There was a report current, which 
found more or less credit, that Cortereal had already in 
the year 1500 entered a Strait in about 60° N. L., and 
that he had called this strait after one of his brothers 
“the Strait of Anian.” According to this tradition 
there was open water to the north of America and then 
in the west again a narrow channel between Asia and 
America, which was likewise called the “Strait of Anian. ” 
This name, of which the origin after Humboldt 3 is quite 


» See his Crit. Researches, Germ. Edit., Berlin, 1852, 1: 477. 



20 


uncertain, was at last exclusively applied to the western 
strait, supposed to be between Asia and America. 

Though the history of this geographical supposition 
reaches much higher up, still the belief in it became more 
or less general not before the middle of the 16th century, 
and the first maps on which the Strait of Anian was 
actually laid down are those of the Italian Geographer 



Map No. 9 


Zaltieri of the year 1566 and of the German Ortelius 
of the year 1570. 

On innumerable maps of this time the general fea¬ 
tures of the configuration given to north-eastern Asia 
and north-western America are the following: Asia 
approaches to America with China, with Tartary with 
the whole broad mass of its body. And America steps 
forward to the west likewise with a broad mass of its 
body, with California and Mexico. A more or less 





21 


narrow channel, the “ Strait of Anian, ” divides them 
in about the latitude of 50 degrees N. Before the south¬ 
ern mouth of this channel, in a pretty equal distance 
from Asia and America, is situated the island of Japan. 

It would be impossible and useless to copy and com¬ 
municate here all the maps which have adopted and 
reproduced this view. 

I will give only the following two: 



Map No. 10 


No. 9 is the oldest map of this class which I could find. 
It is made by Bolognino Zaltieri in the year 1566. It 
has unhappily no indication of longitude and latitude. 
But the Strait of Anian has about the latitude of New¬ 
foundland (Baccalaos). The northern Pacific is called 
with the Asiatic names: “Mare di Mangi” and “Chin¬ 
an Golfo.” 

No. 10 shows the division of the two continents in a 
similar way. It is a part of a map which the geographer 
Paulo de Furlani published, and which he is said to have 




22 


received in the year 1574 from a Spanish nobleman, 
Don Diego Hermano de Toledo. Though the map has 
not indicated the latitudes, it is evident from other 
circumstances that the Strait of Anian is put down in 
about 50° N. L. North-eastern Asia is called “ Anian 
Regnum” (the Kingdom of Anian) and north-western 
America “Quivira.” Though so far as we know no 



explorer at this time had yet passed Bering’s Strait, 
still the configuration of the coasts of the two conti¬ 
nents, the Strait of Anian, the Gulf of Anian, full of 
islands, as represented on our map, resemble in a strik¬ 
ing degree the real and true configuration of Bering’s 
waters and his islands. If it is a mere chance, it is a 
very curious instance how mere chance can foreshadow 
as it were and hit the truth. 

No. 11 is a somewhat similar map of this class by 
Cornelius de Judaeis. 






23 


No. 12 is a copy of the map on which Martin Frobisher 
sketched his views about this point, and on which he 
showed in what manner the Strait discovered and named 
by him might be combined with the Strait of Anian and 
conduct to China. This map was published in the work: 
“A true discourse of the late voyages of discovery for 
the finding of a passage to Cathay, ” London, 1578. 

On the maps of Peter Apian, of Ortelius, of Sebastian 



Munster, of J. Martines, of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 
which 1 will content myself to name only, we find similar 
views adopted, though they sometimes vary with respect 
to the latitude and dimensions given to the Strait, and 
with respect to the adopted configuration of the coast. 

7. Maps of the 16th Century on which the 
Question is Left Undecided. 

After our above remarks, we may state that there 
were among the geographers two contending parties 












24 


with respect to our question, one which believed in a 
separating strait and one which rejected the strait and 
believed that everything to the north of the Pacific 



was barricaded by dry-land, and that this latter party 
may be considered to have preceded the first, but that 
the first pretty generally gained ground at the end of the 
century. We must add that there was also a neutral 
party, which adopted neither the one nor the other view, 









25 


which depicted on their maps the countries only as far 
as they were actually discovered and which laid down 
upon them no hypothetical straits or dry-lands. It 
may suffice here to give a few instances of the produc¬ 
tions of such cautious men, which we find, of course, at 
all times. 

No. 13 shows our regions as they are represented on a 
map of the Italian Baptista Agnese of the year 1536. 



Map No. 14 


“Cataio,” that is northern China, is limited by a dotted 
coast-line, which is pretty much rounded off. We dare 
say that this coast-line of Agnese shows the state of 
knowledge of the Chinese coast acquired at that time 
in a much truer manner than all the accurately drawn 
coast-lines of other map-makers with capes and names 
upon them, derived from Pliny and Ptolemy. The 
same we may say of the dotted and uncertain coast-line 
which Agnese gives to north-western America. 






26 


No. 14 is a reduced copy from the map of the Spanish 
historian Herrera, made at the end of the 16th century. 
At this time the Portuguese had already reached Japan 
and found out its true position, and Spanish as well as 
English navigators (Cabrillo, Drake) had already traced 
the coast of north-western America beyond 44° N. L. 
Drake and his countrymen thought that from here the 
coast ran back towards the east and so Herrera seems 
also to believe it. 

Diego Homem, a famous Portuguese geographer, has 
represented on his numerous maps the relative position 
of America and Asia in quite a similar manner as we see 
it here done by Agnese and Herrera. And so it has been 
done by Molineaux, by Michael Lok, by Oliva, by Ces- 
pedes and many others. 

8. Maps after Hudson’s Time. 

When Henry Hudson, in the year 1610, entered his 
Strait and the unknown waters to the west of it, he 
believed that he was circumnavigating America. He 
thought that the countries to his right hand were a 
part of Asia, stretching out far to the east, and when he 
sailed down on the western-coast of Labrador to the 
south, where he was caught in a Bay, he thought that 
he was on his best way to California to the open Pacific 
and China. Even after him for a long time it was hoped 
that Hudson’s Bay might have an outlet to the west and 
a communication with the Pacific, which made an end 
to the Continent of America. 

The map-makers and geographers who cherished this 
hope, represented, therefore, some part or inlet of Hud¬ 
son’s Bay, not quite satisfactorily explored, as open and 
as possibly leading out to the west. They conducted 
in the same time the north-west coast of America not 
higher to the north than towards the 45° N. L., to which 
point in the 16th century Cabrillo and Drake, and at 
the beginning of the 17th century, Vizcayno had explored 
it. There they made the coast turn round to the east 
and represented an open space, through which as they 


27 


hoped the waters of Hudson’s Bay would be found run¬ 
ning. A map of this kind (No. 15) is that of Master 
Briggs, which Purchas has inserted in the third volume 
of his great work in the year 1625, and of a part of which 
our accompanying sketch gives a reduced copy. On 
this map we see many western inlets of Hudson’s Bay 
as leaving still a hope for a passage, and the coasts of 



Map No. 15 


California, which end in 44° N. L., seem to be prepared 
to receive this passage. A design of the north-western 
part of America is not attempted at all, and the author 
of the map seems to be uncertain if there is water, or 
dry-land, and if these regions belong to America or 
Asia. 

On other bolder maps, for instance on one of Canada 
printed in the year 1677 in Paris, the whole large broad 
channel, which was represented to come out from Hud¬ 
son’s Bay, is actually laid down, and even the route of 








28 


a vessel is traced through it and the inscription added 
“that in the year 1665 a vessel sailed this way round 
America to Japan.” 

The old idea of the Strait of Anian to the north of 
Japan was now either totally abandoned or at least that 
Strait of Anian, which divided Asia and America, was 
now displaced and was put down immediately north of 
California, where it was supposed to enter the Pacific 
in the direction from Hudson’s Bay. This supposition 
we find depicted on many maps of the time, especially 
on Dutch maps. 

9. Maps after the Dutch Explorations to the 
North of Japan. 

During the same time when these hopes of an outlet 
from Hudson’s Bay were pretty generally entertained, 
the Dutch had succeeded the Portuguese in China and 
Japan. Their predecessors, the Portuguese, had never 
pushed their explorations beyond Japan towards the 
northern Pacific. But a Dutch vessel called the Cas- 
tricom reached in the year 1643 the island of Yesso to 
the north of Japan and discovered a strait between this 
island and the neighbouring islands, which was named 
the “Strait de Vries.” 

The island of Yesso is pretty large, but the Dutch, 
who sailed along its coasts and probably also along the 
coasts of some of the islands near to it, which they took all 
to be one, and the same continental land, made it still 
much greater than it really was. They believed it to 
be the beginning of a large new land, which was stretch¬ 
ing far to the north and to the east. Because the acci¬ 
dental discovery of the vessel Castricom was not farther 
pursued, that island of Yesso was delivered for saying 
so in an unfinished state to the imagination and specu¬ 
lation of the geographers and map-makers and they did 
their best with it. They blew it up to a great continent 
intermediate between Asia and America and some of 
them filled with the so-called “terra de Yesso” the whole 
northern Pacific. 


29 


According to this view the continent of Asia ended 
towards the east with the Strait de Vries, which con¬ 
ducted between Asia and the “ terra de Yesso” to the 
northern ocean. The continent of America ended with 
Upper California and the southern coast of Hudson’s 
Bay, and was separated from the country of Yesso by 
the Strait of Anian, which was considered to be a branch 
of Hudson’s Bay. All the real and supposed dry-land 



between Hudson’s and Baffin’s Bay and the Strait of 
Anian in the west and between Strait de Vries and Asia 
in the west was ascribed to a new created continent 
called “Yesso.” These ideas prevailed partly through 
the latter half of the 17th century and they are laid down 
on some maps, which were more or less bold and de¬ 
cisive in these fanciful suppositions. 

For the illustration and corroboration of these matters 
I will insert here reduced copies of the maps of a French 
and a Dutch geographer of that time. 







30 


No. 16 is a sketch after a map of Sanson, the geogra¬ 
pher of the King of France, of the year 1691. He makes 
the north Pacific closed and the coast of Yesso run in 
about 45° N. L. He calls the northern ocean near the 
coasts of north-eastern Asia, to which the “ Strait de 
Vries” conducts, “Mer des Kaimachites, ” which name 
seems to be an allusion to Kamtschatka. 



No. 17 is a sketch after a map of a Dutchman named 
Lugtenburg of about the year 1700. He shows that 
curious idea about the configuration of the north Pacific 
regions to perfection. He makes the Strait of Anian 
cut right through from California to Hudson’s Bay, 
gives to his “Terra de Yesso” well defined outlines and 
ascribes to it everything between Baffin’s Bay and Asia. 
He calls it moreover “Het Land van de tien Stammen 
der Kindern Israels” (The country of the ten tribes of 





31 


Israel), intimating that this was the dry-land bridge 
by which the American population, which he thinks to 
be of Jewish extraction, wandered over from Asia. 

10. Maps after the First Discoveries of the 
Russians before Bering. 

The European nations found so much useful occupa¬ 
tion in the southern parts of the Pacific that the north 
of this broad ocean, where ho kind of attraction was 
held out to explorers, for a long time was completely 
neglected. The Dutch did not advance beyond Japan 
and Yesso, which they had already reached in 1643. 
The Spaniards did not proceed beyond California, 
known to them for 200 years, and the English, who had 
been under Drake on the north-west coast already in 
1578, did not make their appearance again. Everybody 
seemed to shun those stormy, cold, useless regions, and 
the world remained in total ignorance about this part 
of the globe until a new nation appeared on the coasts 
of north-eastern Asia, which gave the sign for an earnest 
exploring activity in these regions, and which at last 
conducted this long agitated geographical question 
to a satisfactory solution. 

The Russians, or rather the Cossacks, had passed the 
dividing mountain ridge between Asia and Europe at 
the end of the 16th century and had worked their way 
from river to river through the whole of Siberia towards the 
East and North Sea. Already in the year of 1648, Desch- 
nef, one of these enterprising Cossack adventurers, with 
a few companions had circumnavigated the whole north¬ 
east end of Asia from the mouth of the Lena round the 
country of the Tschuktschi through Bering's Strait 
to the coast north of Kamtschatka. But Deshnef 
laid not down his discoveries on a map. Because he 
was no well instructed geographer, he himself did not 
exactly know where he sailed and what he discovered. 
Besides this, nothing at the time became known of his 
voyage to the geographers of Europe. His reports 
remained for more than one hundred years hidden in the 


32 


archives of Siberia and his discovery was therefore of 
no consequence for geography. 

Towards the end of the 17th century, during the vic¬ 
torious reign of Peter the Great, numerous bands of 
Cossacks arrived at many points on the borders of the 
eastern ocean along the Amur to the neighbourhood of 



northern China and Japan, on the coasts of the Sea of 
Ochotsk, and to the northern parts of the Peninsula of 
Ochotsk. We are informed that these Cossacks sent also 
to their Russian authorities reports as well as maps. 
They must, however, have been very rude. And 
whatever was laid down about the North Asiatic dis¬ 
coveries on general maps and became known to the rest 












33 


of Europe, was still ruder, as we may learn by a look at 
the following two sketches, which are taken from two 
of the first maps made at this period of the north-eastern 
parts of Asia. 

No. 18 is taken from the Dutch map of Tartaria by 
the Burgomaster of Amsterdam, Nicolas Witsen. The 



Map No. 19 

Dutch, who were at this time very good friends of Peter 
the Great, and the Russians could be better informed 
about Russia than other Europeans and Witsen’s map 
was therefore considered to be a revelation and was 
copied by many French, English and German map- 
makers. We see upon this map the long north-eastern 
cape of Asia, called Ys Caap, represented as unknown 
in its extremity and put in 67° N. L., not far from its 






34 


Drue position. Of Kamtschatka appears nothing. But 
the name of a river called “Kantzanki River” may 
allude to Kamtschatka. The river Amur is rudely 
laid down in its true latitude of 54° N., and the sea before 
it including the Sea of Ochotsk is called “Amoerse Zee” 
(the Sea of Amur). There is no indication of a great 
country to the East (America). 

No. 19 is taken from another map of the same time, 
which is dedicated to Peter the Great. On the title- 
page of this map, it is said that it was made after the 
delineations of the Burgomaster of Amsterdam, N. 
Witsen, but that it was corrected and improved by 
Everard Ysbrandt Ides. This Ides was a German who 
travelled about 1700 as an ambassador of Peter the 
Great through Siberia to China and collected much in¬ 
formation about the north-east of Asia. The map has 
no indication of latitude, gives a rectangular form to the 
north-eastern end of the old continent, but resembles 
for the rest in many respects the former map. It has 
also no peninsula Kamtschatka, but instead of it a river 
Kamzatga, and south of it a group of high mountains, 
which may be the mountains of the peninsula. Along 
the north-eastern coast appear a number of islands, but 
no indication of the great country to the east (America). 

During the first years of the 18th century the Russians 
had completed the conquest and exploration of this 
country on repeated expeditions, and more truthful 
and numerous maps and reports about it may have 
reached the seat of the Russian government. Peter 
the Great ordered the results of these explorations to 
be laid down on a new general map of Siberia. And 
on this map, which was copied in western Europe 
repeatedly and amongst others is added to the work on 
the travels of Lange to China in the years 1721-1722, 
the north-eastern end of Asia was represented in the 
manner in which No. 20 shows it. Kamtschatka is a 
large Peninsula. But as usually in the discoveries of 
new countries, it is represented here still much larger 


35 


than it really is. It goes down as far south as a little 
beyond the 40° N. L., and its southern end approaches the 
island of Japan, whilst it really ends, already in 51° N. L. 
The Cossacks probably saw something of the Kurile 
islands and took a whole chain of them for a part of 
Kamtschatka. The name “Kurilski” is written on our 
map on the southern end of Kamtschatka. The sea 



of Ochotsk is called the Gulf of Kamtschatka. Beyond 
the 60° N. L., appears something like Bering’s Strait, 
and the most eastern end of Asia (4 degrees too far south) 
is called “Cape Swetoi Nos” (the Holy head). To the 
east of this head and strait appears a large island called 
“Puchochotschi,” which is perhaps the first indication 
of the most western end of America. What we now call 
“Bering’s Sea” is named on the map “Mare Japonicum” 
(the Sea of Japan). 









36 


No. 21 is a sketch after a map which was published 
some years later than the former and shows some prog¬ 
ress and some new features. It was published on a large 
scale by the well-known German cartographers Homann 
in Nuremberg. The date of publication is not given. 
But the map must have been made before the year 1728, 



that is to say before the first voyage of discovery by 
Bering. At least the map has no sign that Bering’s maps 
and reports were used. The Homanns, who were in 
scientific correspondence with Russia say that they made 
the map “ after the observations of the Russian hunters, 
who had explored those regions on numerous expeditions 
by sea and by land.” The map seems to have been 
esteemed at the time by geographers, and a reduced 





37 


copy of it is also to be found among the Japanese manu¬ 
script of Kempfer. Unhappily the map has no latitudes. 

Nevertheless it is evident that Kamtschatka has re¬ 
ceived a much better configuration and position than 
on No. 20. It does not go down as far south as Japan 



and as the mouth of the Amur, and ends in about 46° 
N. L., which is only 4 degrees too long. Between Niph- 
on (Japan) and Kamtschatka appear the Kurile islands. 
Bering’s Strait is indicated, and moreover to the east of 
Kamtschatka a large piece of country without name, 
alluding probably to the great unknown eastern countries 





38 


(America), of which the Tschuktschi and Kamtschadali 
may have spoken to the Cossacks. 

In the year 1728-1729, Capt. Bering executed at last 
the first official and scientific exploration of the north¬ 
eastern end of Asia, circumnavigated with astronomical 
instruments the whole of Kamtschatka, penetrated into 
Bering’s Strait, without, however, seeing the west coast 
of America, and brought home the first map of these 
regions, which was founded upon actual astronomical 
survey. 

No. 22 is a reduced copy of this map of Bering, upon 
which with a few exceptions nothing is laid down but 
what Bering actually saw and surveyed. Upon this 
map Kamtschatka, for the first time, received something 
like its true position in longitude and latitude. Its 
length is shortened to about 51° N. L., which is nearly 
right. And whilst on the former maps (see Nos. 20 
and 21) it swept much to the east and had nearly the 
longitude of Bering’s Strait and of the most eastern end 
of Asia, it turns on this map much to the west and its 
southern end remains from Bering’s Strait in a distance 
of about 34 degrees of western longitude, which is pretty 
much true. 

Bering received on this his first voyage no information 
and knowledge of America and his map, therefore, con¬ 
tains also no indication of it. But we may consider 
that the geography of north-eastern Asia in its principal 
outlines was settled by him. This part of the world 
stood now more or less clear before the eyes of the ge¬ 
ographers whilst the west end of America remained 
still enveloped in utter darkness. 

11. First Maps of the North-West End of 
America after Bering. 

During the reign of the Empress Katharina of Russia 
a thorough and scientific exploration and survey of the 
whole of north-eastern Asia was concluded and executed, 
and corps of engineers and surveyors went out in all 
directions, also towards the unknown east. Two vessels 


39 


under the command of Captain Bering and Tschirikow 
sailed this way in the year 1741. They took their course 
at first very far to the south into the northern Pacific as 
far down as beyond 45° N. L., because they principally 
went out in search of a certain great country, which 
a Portuguese Captain Don Joz6 da Gama was said to 
have seen there on a voyage from China to New Spain. 

This country was already depicted on a map in The- 
venot's great work in the year 1663, as a great tract of 
land between Asia and America in the latitude of north¬ 
ern Japan or Yesso and Upper California. It resembled 
in its form and situation very much the old fabulous 
Terra de Yesso of the Dutch navigators, as may be seen 
by the annexed sketch which we give of this country, 
as it has been depicted in the Atlas of Reiner and [Joshua] 
Ottens. Bering and Tschirikow could not find that this 
country really did not exist, and which was probably noth¬ 
ing but some of the Kurile islands, mistaken for a great 
country. They therefore steered towards the north¬ 
east and touched the coast of America on different points 
between 55° and 60° N. L., saw it also again repeatedly 
on their home voyage, and discovered different islands, 
upon one of which Bering himself shipwrecked and died. 
Some of his companions and Tschirikow returned, how¬ 
ever, to Asia and Russia, where, however, for a long time 
nothing was officially published about the results of their 
voyage. 

The rest of Europe heard only by a very general report 
that the Russians had made an expedition and some 
discoveries to the east of Siberia and Kamtschatka. 
Some believed that they might have been in America. 
Others thought that the land seen by them might be 
something like Terra de Yesso, a new country between 
America and Asia. 

How very vague, uncertain and varying the opinions 
of European geographers were with respect to these 
Russian discoveries may best be shown by the inspection 
of some maps, which were published soon after Bering's 
and Tschirikow's expedition. 


40 


No. 23 is a reduced copy from a map published in 
Germany a few years after the return of Bering's people 
in the year 1748. Of all the Russian discoveries nothing 
is indicated as [butj the island where Bering perished 
and this island is put in about 70° N. L., that is to say 
about 15 degrees too high. We find written to it the 
following inscription: “The Russians have come so 
far as this in the year 1743 but they have been ship- 



Map No. 23 


wrecked on the shoals and drowned." The whole rest 
of north-western America is indicated by a dotted line 
running from north to south to the Bay of Aguilar in 
California, with the inscription running along it: “ Prob¬ 

ably America goes as far as this." At the northern end 
of California the observation is added that “there the 
Sea begins to be very boisterous." A more laconic 
report on the Russian discoveries a map-maker could 
not make. The same map with exactly the same inscrip¬ 
tions was also published in France and in other countries. 






41 


No. 24 is a copy of a map, which was made by the 
French geographer, Philippe Buache, as he said after 
the memoirs of the astronomer De L’Isle, who accom¬ 
panied the expedition of Bering, and which was presented 
in the year 1750 to the Academy of Sciences in Paris. 
He tried to combine on it the fabulous discoveries of the 
so-called Spanish Admiral Fuente and of another Span¬ 
iard, De Fuca, which he believed were the real discover¬ 



ies of the Russians, of which he had a very incomplete 
knowledge. He put down on his map all the great lakes, 
straits and the great “Sea of the West” (Mer ou Baye 
de TOuest), which Fuente and De Fuca were reported 
to have seen. He laid down in 56° N. L., a piece of the 
coast seen by Tschirikow, and again a long stretched 
coast seen by the same Tschirikow farther to the west 
and in 54° N. L. He adopted likewise, more to the south 
and west, the coast seen by J. da Gama and another 
country in the Arctic regions, north of Siberia, seen by 









42 


the Russians in 1723. In this way he made of the whole 
of north-western America a broken country or a complex 
of islands, curiously formed peninsulas and unfinished 
coast pieces. Of Bering’s discoveries his map gives 
nothing except the little island of Bering where this 
explorer died. This map of Buache and De L’Isle was, 
however, considered to be a very good authority, which 



Map No. 25 


it partly was. And it was therefore copied in many 
countries and by different geographers, only that they 
added to it sometimes a little of their own. 

No. 25, for instance, shows a copy of the map of Buache 
and De LTsle by the English geographer, Jefferys. 
He adopts on it everything. But he thinks that the 
country seen by the Russians in 1723 to the north of 
Siberia is nothing but a prolongation of the countries 
seen by them to the east of Kamtschatka, that is to say 
of America, and he therefore gives to north-western 








43 


America an enormous extent. Other map-makers, on 
the other hand, made the coast-line of North America 
from Bering's Strait run due north to the Pole. 

At last in the year 1758, the Russian Academy of 
Sciences published an authentic and complete chart 
of the discoveries made by Bering and Tschirikow. 
No. 26 is a copy of this chart. On it in the same time 
the detached pieces of coasts seen by those navigators 



are joined by dotted lines, which show the outlines of 
the countries as the members of the Academy (princi¬ 
pally Mr. Muller, the historian of Siberia) thought them 
to be. Though the name of America does not occur 
on this map, still it is evident that the Russian Academy 
thought the new countries to be a part of this continent. 
They supposed, even, that all the pieces of coast which 
Bering and Tschirikow had seen, along what we now call 
the Aleutian islands, made a part of this continent and 
formed a long, broad peninsula, which error was only 
corrected by later discoveries. 






44 


This map of the Russian Academy was now of course 
as the most reliable information adopted and copied 
by all geographers of Europe. It left, however, still 
open a large field of speculation and this open field was 
filled out by them with many speculations, which they 
tried to introduce into this map. Besides the old tradi¬ 
tions of the North American discoveries of the Admiral 
De Fuente, to which some still adhered, other reports 



about certain discoveries, made in north-western Amer¬ 
ica by the Chinese and Japanese, gained credit at this 
time. De Guignes in his great work on China had pro¬ 
nounced that the Chinese knew north-west America 
under the name of “Fusany” or “the country of the 
rising sun.” Kempfer had brought to Europe certain 
Japanese maps, on which were figured countries to the 
north-east of Japan. Some thought that by these coun¬ 
tries was meant the north-western part of America. 

No. 27 shows how a map-maker, who believed in all 
these discoveries, tried to combine on a map the real 








45 


discoveries of the Russians with the supposed knowledge 
of the Chinese, Japanese and De Fuente. He copies 
on it first the map of the Russian Academy. But there 
into the interior and the unknown North he puts down 
countries and bays taken from Kempfer’s Japanese 
map. In the south he has the country “Fusany” of 
the Chinese, mentioned by De Guignes, and besides this 
the lakes of De Fuente. 

12. Maps of the Russian Fur-hunters between 
Bering and Cook. 

It was a long time after Bering (1743) before an im¬ 
portant official and scientific expedition was made again 
from Siberia towards the east. But Bering had opened 
a field for private speculation. His companions had 
brought with them from the eastern countries rich 
shares of most precious furs, which were sold at high 
prices. And this circumstance induced many Russian 
privateers and speculators to fit out in Kamtschatka 
and Ochotsk small vessels and to sail to the east for the 
exploration of the seats of these fur animals. These 
privateers rediscovered at first Bering’s Island, and 
having exhausted this, then reached the chain of the 
Aleutian islands one after the other. They reported 
that what the Academists on their map of 1758 had 
represented as continental land were all islands. They 
also sometimes brought home a map, which they tried 
to construct of these islands. But for want of astro¬ 
nomical instruments they could not well define their 
position. 

This kind of trade became by degrees important and 
the Russian government at last decided again on some 
scientific#! and official expeditions towards the east, 
to assist their subjects in their navigation by defining 
the position of the new islands and by taking possession 
of them. Between the years 1764-1769 two such official 
expeditions were made, one commanded by Lieutenant 
Synd and the other by Lieutenants Krenitzin and 
Levascheff. 


46 


Synd followed (from 1764-1768) the first route of 
Bering (in 1728), sailed along the east coast of Kamts- 
chatka and the country of Tschuktschi of Bering’s Strait 
and recognized there also the most western point of 
America, which Bering had not seen, which had been, 
however, already visited by a Russian of the name of 
Gvozdec in the year 1730. 

Krenitzin and Levascheff (1768-1769) visited the 
Aleutian islands as far as the western point of the penin¬ 
sula of Alaska. Both brought home maps of their 
discovery which remained, however, hidden in Russia 
and became only known at a much later period. 

The European geographers received of all these Rus¬ 
sian discoveries only very confused reports. They seem 
to have heard only that the great large peninsula, painted 
on the map of the Russian Academy of 1758 was now 
recognized to be all islands, to which different names 
were given. It seems now to have become a passion 
to see islands everywhere. Not only the whole space of 
water between America and Asia was filled with islands 
where none existed, but also the long peninsula of 
Alaschka was considered to consist of islands, and also 
the great western spit of land, with which America 
[. . .] toward Bering’s Strait, was supposed to be an 
island. The great continental land of America was 
therefore placed far back to the east behind this great 
new archipelago. 

No. 28 shows how these things were figured at the 
time. It is a copy of a map by the English geographer, 
Jefferys, of the year 1775. Jefferys made this map 
principally after another map, composed by a Mr. 
Staehlin, who was considered to be a good authority 
and whose work lay at the bottom of all the similar maps 
of that period which were published in Germany, Hol¬ 
land, France and other countries. We see on this map 
the terra firma of America in the latitude of Bering’s 
Strait at a distance of 20 degrees of longitude from the 
eastern cape of Asia. It is called the Great Country 
of “Stachtan Nitada, ” a curious name, which is probably 


47 


of Aleutian origin and which was adopted at the time 
on all maps. The western broad spit of land is made to 
be an island and called “Alaschka.” Also “Unalasch- 
ka, n which was discovered by Krenitzin and Levascheff 
is transferred to this region and with them many other 
islands, which are named with an Asiatic name: “Ana- 
dirskai islands’ ’ (the islands of Anadir), as if they be- 



Map No. 28 


longed to Asia. To the south of them is laid down 
another group of islands called “Aleutskai islands” (the 
islands of the Aleuti). Their arrangement resembles 
very little the order in which this chain of islands is put 
in reality. From Mount S. Elias to the north-west, north 
and round to the east is open water and navigation. 

It was on maps like these that the plans for Cook’s 
great expedition to these regions were based. But to 
throw still more light on the great merits of this dis- 





48 


coverer, we will reproduce and insert here a map of 
comparison, No. 29, which was composed and compiled 
by the French geographer, J. N. Buache a few years 
before Cook. He tried to show on this map how differ¬ 
ent the opinions of geographers were about the con¬ 
figuration and position of the northern extremity of the 
two continents. He combined on it the delineations 
of three distinguished geographers: Engel, Vaugondy 



Map No. 29 


and of himself. The red lines on the map represent the 
ideas of Engel, the yellow those of Vaugondy and the 
blue those of Buache. 

[The present reproduction does not give the variations in color, as 
noted in Kohl’s drawing.] 

We learn by it that their positions deviated some¬ 
times about 20 degrees of longitude and also in some 
parts considerably in latitude. 

13. Maps after Cook. 

that there could not be any large channel or bay 
between Hudson’s Bay, or some other north-eastern 































49 


bay of America, and the Pacific Ocean, as had often 
been supposed, was principally proved by the travel of 
Hearne in the year 1771. He went by land round the 
whole of the western coast of Hudson’s Bay, cut right 
through the large body of the American continent, 
found everywhere fresh-water lakes and rivers and 
reached the salt-water, or the Arctic Ocean, only beyond 
70° N. L. 

Soon after him other travellers of the north-west and 
Hudson’s Bay companies advanced far into the interior 
to the north-west and found here likewise an everywhere 
connected mass of terra firma, not otherwise interrupted 
but by lakes and rivers, and not separated by such 
fanciful bays and channels as had been drawn on the 
maps after the so-called De Fuente or after the geograph¬ 
ical views of the Japanese. 

The idea that the American continent ended already 
at a very low latitude, and that that piece of land which 
the Russians had discovered was something separate 
between Asia and America, was therefore more and more 
given up. Also the explorers, whom the Spanish 
government had sent out after 1774 along the north-west 
coast and who advanced as far as about the region where 
Bering and Tschirikow had been before, had found firm 
land everywhere when they touched the coast and no 
signs of broad channels and waters. 

When, therefore, Cook in the year 1777 sailed to 
these regions with the intention of trying a circumnaviga¬ 
tion of the whole of northern America and of returning 
by the north and north-east through Baffin’s Bay, 
neither his instructions nor he himself paid much atten¬ 
tion to the coast east of Mount Elias, expecting that it 
would be all terra firma and not hoping that he could 
effectuate his passage to the north there. But to the 
west of Mount St. Elias, where as I have shown nearly 
all the former maps had shown America to be dissolved 
in islands, he held a sharp look-out, entered every inlet 
and bay, thinking that he might find something like a 
passage. He was, however, baffled in his expectations. 


50 


Every large inlet was found to be nothing but a sound, 
one of which he called “Prince Williams’s Sound,” and 
another Cook’s River. 

On his progress to the west the continental coast 
threw him even back much to the south and he could not 
push to the north into open water before he had reached 
the western end of what he called the peninsula of Alaska. 
He sailed along this peninsula on both sides, discovered 
[and] entered Bristol Bay and Northon Sound and passed 
Bering’s Strait into the Arctic Ocean. He circumnavi¬ 
gated the most western end of America, which he called 
C. Pr. of Wales, found the northern coast of America 
turning to the north-east, but was stopped in his progress 
by an unpassable barrier of ice in about 70° N. L., where 
he called the last head-land seen by him Icy Cape. He 
sailed along this barrier of ice towards the west, touched 
the coast of northern Asia in the same latitude, where 
he called the last head-land seen by him Cape North, 
traced this coast backward towards Bering’s Strait, and 
returned to the south through the chain of the Aleutian 
islands. 

No. 30 is a reduced copy of the map on which the dis¬ 
coveries of Cook were laid down and which was published 
soon after his death and after the return of his officers. 
We see upon it, for the first time, the north-western end 
of America given its true proportions and configurations 
at least in its principal features. The parts of the coast 
which Cook could not approach and ascertain are marked 
with dotted lines. He did not recognize the figure of 
the large island of Kadiak and he did not survey the 
interesting part of the coast between Bristol and Norton 
Bay, which he could not approach because the water 
was too shoal, and where in later times were discovered 
the deltas of some large rivers. Cook traced the prin¬ 
cipal features of its configuration in an undoubted and 
scientific manner and put them down on the map in their 
true latitude and longitude. All the erroneous suppo¬ 
sitions of a “ terra de Yesso,” or some other separate 
continent between Asia and America, of great inland 


51 


channels cutting through the whole continent of America, 
of a great archipelago, full of islands between Asia and 
America, vanished before Cook’s delineation. 

There remained still after him it is true much detail 
work to be done, many special questions to be answered. 
The length of the many inlets were still to be explored, 
many islands were to be circumnavigated, the question 



Map No. 30 


whether on the north-west coast there was such a large 
“Bay of the West” as De Fuca was said to have dis¬ 
covered, was still open and remained long after Cook 
still a subject of discussion and research. But the great 
and rough work was done by Cook, and all his Spanish, 
French and English successors may be considered as 
progressing and building on the fundamentals given 
by him. We may say that Cook did in this manner in 
the year 1778 the same thing for the west end of America 
that Bering had done in the year 1728 for the east end 










52 


of Asia. And it was, therefore, also very just and fair 
that the dividing strait between the two great islands of 
our globe was called as well after the Asiatic as the 
American explorer: “Cook’s and Bering’s Strait.” 

Cook’s map was of course at once adopted by all the 
geographers of the time, who inserted after it into their 
general maps and remodelled according to it the map of 
North America and northern Asia. On these maps were 
also sometimes drawn the northern shores of North 



Map No. 31 


America by connecting through a hypothetical line the 
most northern coast-points reached by Cook and Hearne. 

No. 31 shows how this was done by the English geog¬ 
rapher, Arrowsmith. It is a reduced copy of a map of 
north-eastern Asia and north-western America, which 
this geographer published soon after Cook and on which 
he combined the discoveries of Cook and Bering and other 
Russian navigators. Similar maps were published, some 
time after Cook, in Petersburg and elsewhere. 














53 


14. Time after Cook. 

After the time of Cook no more principal and essential 
changes were made in the map of north-eastern Asia 



and north-western America, and thence we may come 
down at once to the latest and most modern map of 
these regions which has filled out the gaps left by Cook, 


Map No. 32 

















54 


and gives the most perfect and complete view of the 
question. We therefore conclude here our series of 
pictures with a small reduced picture of our regions, 
No. 32, as they are figured on our present maps and which 
we subjoin for the sake of comparison. 

To explain this picture the following short notes on 
the further history of north-west America will suffice. 
Soon after Cook, a general interest in the north-west 
American coast arose. Cook had discovered here, like 
Bering in the regions nearer to Asia, that rare and pre¬ 
cious fur-animal, the sea-otter, and as after Bering, so 
also after Cook, the trade and hunt after the fur of this 
animal excited further explorations. Meares, Dixon, 
Portlock and many other English captains sailed along 
this coast, made new discoveries and constructed new 
maps of it. Also the French, who wished to partake in 
it, sent along the northwest coast their excellent La 
Perouse, who made there many new observations. Even 
some American Captains, Gray, Irving, and others, came 
out to the coast and helped in this work in the hope of 
gain. The Spaniards, who feared in this struggle of 
other nations to lose their old claims and pretensions 
to that whole part of the New World, until then so much 
neglected by them, sent also out a whole series of scien¬ 
tific expeditions under Bodega y Quadra, Malaspina 
and others, who explored likewise the coast as far north 
and west as the Aleutian islands. 

At last in the years 1792-1794, came the great Van¬ 
couver, who from California to the peninsula of Alaska 
exploring every sound, strait and inlet, and circum¬ 
navigating every island, set all the geographical questions 
of this coast at rest, and gave upon his maps the most 
perfect picture of it. 

During the same time, 1793-1794, a land-traveller, 
Alexander Mackenzie, made a similar cut through the 
whole of the north-western American continent, as 
Hearne had done it twenty years before him. Partly 
by actual walking over dry-land, partly by a canoe 
navigation in rivers, in two different directions, one to 


55 


the north towards the Arctic Sea, and one to the west 
towards the Pacific Ocean, he proved that everything 
was here continental. But Hearne had proved this 
only for the region near Hudson’s Bay. Mackenzie 
proved it in a like manner for the neighborhood of the 
Pacific. Twenty degrees of longitude to the west from 
the Nec plus ultra of Hearne he gained and fixed another 
point of the Arctic coast of America, like Hearne and like 
Cook not far from the 70° N. L. The conjectural line 
by which the geographers united these three given points, 
and with which they traced the probable configuration 
of this part of the great American peninsula of the north¬ 
west, became now nearly certain. 

There still remained, however, for some time one 
essential point of doubt. Between the Nec plus ultra of 
Cook (Icy Cape) and that of Mackenzie (the mouth of 
Mackenzie River) was a large tract of unknown coast. 
The continent of America might in this place as well send 
out a large spit of land to the north or west, as run 
directly east and west, as was generally adopted. On 
the other side there was one equally uncertain point 
on the Arctic coast of Asia. A long peninsula, called by 
the Russians “Swatoi Nos” (the Holy Head), projects 
from this coast not far north-west from Bering’s Strait 
and reaches far into the Arctic waters. It was repre¬ 
sented nearly on all the maps with dotted lines as some¬ 
thing unknown. Though the Cossacks pretended to 
have circumnavigated it already in the year 1648 under 
their chief, Deshnef, of whom we have spoken above, 
still this circumnavigation could for nearly two hundred 
years never be effected again. And geographers com¬ 
menced, therefore, to question this circumnavigation 
of the Holy Cape by Deshnef and made it likely that 
instead of navigating there he had drawn his boats 
over a portage of dry-land and had not seen the end of 
the country. 

Cook, as we said, had also approached this peninsula 
from the east, but was hindered there in his progress by 
a barrier of ice, which seemed to unite the Holy Cape in 


56 


Asia with the Icy Cape in America. Cook found along 
this icy barrier not very deep water. Could this barrier 
of ice, which also after Cook was seen again in the same 
position by other navigators, not perhaps lie upon a 
bank? Was it not perhaps even the ice-bound shore of 
a great land of a continental bridge between Holy and 
Icy Cape? The possibility of this union was admitted 
still by geographers as late as the year 1820, among 
others, for instance, by Captain Burney, the able his¬ 
torian of north-western explorations. He tries to prove 
that the water north of Bering’s Strait may be nothing 
but a shore-bound bay and that the two great islands of 
our globe may be still linked together in the indicated 
region by a bridge of dry-land. 

This supposition was discovered only in our times by 
the combined efforts of the navigator Beechey, who 
progressed beyond Cook’s Icy Cape towards the east, 
and of Franklin, Richardson, Parry, Rae and other land 
and sea-travellers, who wandered or sailed in boats 
along the whole Arctic coasts of North America, and who, 
by uniting the Nec plus ultra of Hearne, Mackenzie, 
Cook and Beechey, carved out its true figures and showed 
that the American continent really ended, as it had been 
supposed for some time, in a long, more or less straight 
line from east to west near about 70° N. L. Only after 
those travellers, that is to say after about 1830, it was 
quite doubtless that America could in no way whatever 
be continentally connected with Asia, though there 
might be between them still many great Arctic islands, 
the history of which does not, however, enter into our 
subject. 

The Russians also were during the course of the first 
half of this century very active in exploring as well 
their north-west American as their north-east Asiatic 
possessions and in improving the map of them. They 
(under Kotzebue, 1816) discovered a great bay to the 
north-east of Bering’s Strait (Kotzebue Sound). They 
reconnoitered and defined the shoal piece of coast be¬ 
tween Norton and Bristol Bay, which Cook could not 


57 


approach, and traced there (under Zagoskin and others) 
the course of two large rivers: the Kwikhpak and 
Kuskoquim. They (under Schelikof) showed Kadiak 
to be an island, and they made (under Wrangell, 
Tebenkof and other officers) many special surveys 
of bays, harbors, straits and islands belonging to 
them. They also (under Anson, Wrangell and others) 
explored again the Arctic coast of Asia and published 
a most accurate survey and map of Kamtschatka. 
But we can dispense with tracing here step by step 
the progress of all these interesting expeditions because 
they contributed nothing more to the decision of our 
main question, the relative geographical position of 
north-eastern Asia and north-western America, which 
was, as we said, ultimately decided by Beechey and 
Franklin. 












































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